Introduction
Qualitative analysis is (or should be) a rigorous and logical process through which data are given meaning. According to Miles and Huberman (1994) qualitative studies have a quality of ‘undeniability’ because words have a more concrete and vivid flavor that is more convincing to the reader than pages of numbers. However, qualitative analysis has been criticized for being lacking in methodological rigor, prone to researcher subjectivity and based on small cases or limited evidence. We will explore how qualitative analysis addresses such problems later in this chapter. Qualitative analysis is (or should be) a rigorous and logical process through which data are given meaning. Through analysis, we can progress through an initial description of the data then, through a process of disaggregating the data into smaller parts, see how these connect into new concepts, providing the basis for a fresh description.
Characteristic of qualitative research you ever taken any kind of research method course, you come to qualitative methods class already knowing about research, Media and popular culture, particularly television and radio news, as well as print media. There are five features of qualitative research as we define it.
1. Naturalistic, qualitative research actual setting as the direct source of data and the researcher is the key instrument. The words naturalistic come from ecological approaches from biology. Researchers enter and spend considerable time in school, families, neighborhoods and other locals about educational concern. Qualitative researchers go to the particular setting under study because they are concern with context. When the data with which they are concerned are produce by informants, as in the case as official records, qualitative researchers want to know where, how, and under circumstances they come into being.
2. Descriptive data. Qualitative research is descriptive. The data collected take the form of words or pictures rather than numbers. The written results of the research contain quotation from the data to illustrate and substantiate the presentation. In collecting descriptive data, qualitative researchers approach the world in nit picking way. The qualitative researcher approach demand that the world be examined with the assumption that nothing is trivial, that everything has the potential of being the clue that might unlock a more comprehensive understanding of what is being studied. Descriptive data are particularly important because qualitative methods enable researchers study what people take for granted. The researchers focus on how people’s assumption about the ways life is organize propel them throughout their daily activities.
3. Concern with process. Qualitative researchers are concern with process rather than simply with outcomes or products. The qualitative emphasis on process has been particularly beneficial in educational research in clarifying the self-fulfilling prophecy, the idea that students’ cognitive performance in school is affected by teachers’ expectation of them (Roshental & Jacobson, 1968). Qualitative strategies have suggested just how the expectations are translated into daily activities, procedures, and interactions. The day-to-day process is richly portrayed (Rist, 1970)
4. Inductive. Qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data inductively. The theory is grounded the data. As a qualitative researcher planning to develop some kind of theory about what you have been studying, the direction will travel comes after you have been collecting the data, after you spent time with your subjects. The process of data analysis is like a funnel: things are open at the beginning (or top) and more directed and specific at the bottom.
5. Meaning. Meaning is of essential concern to the qualitative approach. Researchers who use this approach are interested in how different people make sense of their lives. Qualitative researchers are concerned with making sure that they capture perspectives accurately.
Whether or not
• It is conducted through intense contact within a ‘field’ or real life setting.
• The researcher’s role is to gain a ‘holistic’ or integrated overview of the study, including the perceptions of participants.
• Themes that emerge from the data are often reviewed with informants for verification.
• The main focus of research is to understand the ways in which people act and account for these actions.
• Qualitative data are open to multiple interpretations (but some are more compelling than others either on theoretical grounds or because of internal consistency).
Process of Qualitative Data Collection
Qualitative data collection consists of collection data using forms with
Purposeful Sampling
In purposeful sampling, researchers intentionally select individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon. If you conduct your study and use purposeful sampling, you need to identify your sampling strategy and be able to defend its use.
Types of purposeful sampling:
1. Maximal variation sampling
2. Extreme case sampling
3. Typical sampling
4. Critical sampling
5. Homogeneous sampling
6. Theory or concept sampling
7. Opportunistic sampling
8. Snowball sampling
9. Confirming/ disconfirming sampling
Thursday, April 19, 2012
SOAL MID CULTURE AND ELT
UJIAN TENGAH SEMESTER GENAP FAKULTAS TAHUN AKADEMIK 2011/2012 PRGRAM MAGISTER PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS PROGRAM PASCA SARJANA UNIVERSITAS AHMAD DAHLAN YOGYAKARTA
Mata kuliah : Culture and ELT)2 sks CLASS B
Dosen Penguji: Prof. Dr. Bustami Subhan, M.S.
Hari dan tanggal: Kamis 26 ApriL 2012
Waktu : 90 menit
Sifat Ujian : Buku Terbuka TAKE HOME EXAM
Instructions
l. Read every question carefully and then answer the question in the form of essay. You must give explanation, illustration, or argument to support your answer.
2. Do not work together. Be independent.
3. Read basmallah before you begin your work. Good luck.
A. PART ONE
1. Lack of cross-cultural understanding can make someone make mistakes in communication with a foreigner? Do you agree? Why/ Explain.
2. Students often make many mistakes in speaking English. One of the reasons is that they often transfer the system of their mother tongue (L 1) into the target language ( L2). They might say to their teacher like this : because you not come yesterday Sir, I go home Do you agree? Explain.
B. PART TWO
C. What do you know about Indian culture? Give your comments.
D. What do you know about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Explain.
E. Language often reflects its culture. The speech levels( undha- usuk) in Javanese, for instance, reflect that there are levels in Javanese society. orang Jawa itu njlimet atau suka memperhatikan yang detail= the Javanese love paying attention to small things or details? Do you agree/ explain
C. PART THREE
6. Language and culture are related. Explain.
7. Tell about the British culture. Give your comments.
D. PART fOUR
8. make a summary of the book Practical Theories of English Language Teaching and Learning written by Bustami Subhan ( 2011). You can choose 3 chapters that you like.
9. tugas tambahan untuk menambahilmu dan nilai ;dikumpulkan paling lambat akhir bulan Mei 2012. Buat ringkasan buku psycholinguistics, Sociolnguistics and Semantics (Subhan, 2004)
Mata kuliah : Culture and ELT)2 sks CLASS B
Dosen Penguji: Prof. Dr. Bustami Subhan, M.S.
Hari dan tanggal: Kamis 26 ApriL 2012
Waktu : 90 menit
Sifat Ujian : Buku Terbuka TAKE HOME EXAM
Instructions
l. Read every question carefully and then answer the question in the form of essay. You must give explanation, illustration, or argument to support your answer.
2. Do not work together. Be independent.
3. Read basmallah before you begin your work. Good luck.
A. PART ONE
1. Lack of cross-cultural understanding can make someone make mistakes in communication with a foreigner? Do you agree? Why/ Explain.
2. Students often make many mistakes in speaking English. One of the reasons is that they often transfer the system of their mother tongue (L 1) into the target language ( L2). They might say to their teacher like this : because you not come yesterday Sir, I go home Do you agree? Explain.
B. PART TWO
C. What do you know about Indian culture? Give your comments.
D. What do you know about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Explain.
E. Language often reflects its culture. The speech levels( undha- usuk) in Javanese, for instance, reflect that there are levels in Javanese society. orang Jawa itu njlimet atau suka memperhatikan yang detail= the Javanese love paying attention to small things or details? Do you agree/ explain
C. PART THREE
6. Language and culture are related. Explain.
7. Tell about the British culture. Give your comments.
D. PART fOUR
8. make a summary of the book Practical Theories of English Language Teaching and Learning written by Bustami Subhan ( 2011). You can choose 3 chapters that you like.
9. tugas tambahan untuk menambahilmu dan nilai ;dikumpulkan paling lambat akhir bulan Mei 2012. Buat ringkasan buku psycholinguistics, Sociolnguistics and Semantics (Subhan, 2004)
Tuesday, April 17, 2012
SOAL UJIAN TENGAH SEMESTER GENAP
TA. 2011/2012
TAKE HOME EXAM
MATA KULIAH : METHODS OF TEFL
SEMESTER / KELAS : III / A + B
HARI / TANGGAL : SABTU / 21 APRIL 2012
WAKTU : 12.30 – 14.00 (90 MENIT)
SIFAT : OPEN BOOKS
DOSEN : DR. HJ. R.A. NOER DODDY IRMAWATI, DRA., M.HUM
===============================================================
DIRECTIONS
Do all the questions given in clear and complete statements. The clear and briefly answers will be appreciated.
1. What is method? and What is TEFL? Describe them as clear as possible.
2. Tell briefly the relationship between method and TEFL.
3. Do you think that method is important in teaching English, why? What is the best method of teaching English?
TAKE HOME EXAM
MATA KULIAH : METHODS OF TEFL
SEMESTER / KELAS : III / A + B
HARI / TANGGAL : SABTU / 21 APRIL 2012
WAKTU : 12.30 – 14.00 (90 MENIT)
SIFAT : OPEN BOOKS
DOSEN : DR. HJ. R.A. NOER DODDY IRMAWATI, DRA., M.HUM
===============================================================
DIRECTIONS
Do all the questions given in clear and complete statements. The clear and briefly answers will be appreciated.
1. What is method? and What is TEFL? Describe them as clear as possible.
2. Tell briefly the relationship between method and TEFL.
3. Do you think that method is important in teaching English, why? What is the best method of teaching English?
Cross Cultural Understanding in ELT *
By Prof. Dr. Bustami Subhan, M.S.
Once, an amateur tourist guide who was also a foreign language (English) student in Yogyakarta felt embarrassed because he received an unsympathetic response from a tourist whom he greeted on the street. At a glance, the amateur guide had a fairly good English mastery because his sentence was grammatical and his pronunciation was good enough. However, how could it be?
While a tourist was riding a bike, the tourist guide followed him giving a greeting “Where are you going, Sir”. Without looking back, the tourist continued riding his bike and said, ”Mind your business!” (It means “take care of your own job” or “Urusi dirimu sendiri”). Feeling embarrassed, the amateur tourist guide stopped running and went to a shady place.
If we analyze the event we can say that the tourist guide did not make a grammatical mistake in his sentence. However, he made a mistake that was related to cultural aspect(s). In Indonesian culture, the question “Mau ke mana, Pak?” or “Mau ke mana, Bu?” becomes a flexible (accepted) greeting that can be addressed to a man or a woman, even though the man or woman is not known before. To Indonesians, the greeting “Mau ke mana, Pak?” which can be translated into “Where are you going, Sir?” sounds natural and flexible. This is due to the fact that people from different parts of Indonesia use the similar sentence in their regional languages such as ”Badhe tindak pundi, Pak?” (Javanese), “Badhe angkat ka mana, Pak?” (Sundanese), “Mau kemane, Pak?”(Jakartanese), and “Pai kama, Pak?” (Minangkabaunese).
In contrast, the tourist did not have the same cultural background with that of the tourist guide. In England and America, the question “Where are you going?” is an impolite greeting because it can be interpreted as intruding someone’s privacy. It is known that in western countries human rights and freedom are highly valued. There is no wonder that the response to the question “Where are you going” is “Mind your business!”.
In order to make the foreign language learners able to speak English grammatically and appropriately, two linguists from America, namely, Charles Fries and Robert Lado in Linguistics Across Cultures (l957) say that the most effective teaching materials are those which are based on the systematic comparison between the language of the learner (L1) and the target language (L2 or the language to be acquired by the students).
According to Fries and Lado, foreign language learners tend to transfer the system of their native language (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and accent) into the target language when they communicate both in spoken and written form. Consequently, foreign language teachers must be able to present their teaching materials in such a way that the learners can really understand and master the rules of the target language as to how to express their ideas and feelings (which are usually made in L1).
Based on the comparison between L1 and L2, there will be similarities and differences. Similarities will bring easiness, whereas the differences will bring problems or difficulties. Problems or difficulties must be solved and solving problems needs time (teaching hours). There is another assumption that the degree of difficulty will vary among the learners of English in the world. Moreover, the learners of English in the world have different cultural backgrounds.
As an illustration, the difficulty of Indonesian learners of English will be different from that of German, French, Dutch, or Italian learners of English. Conversely, Indonesian students will find it easier to study Malay language than the German, the Dutch, the French or the Italian do. Indonesian is close to Malay language because the two languages came from the same source.
Cultural Aspect
After quoting Fries’ idea, Robert Lado asserts that teachers of a foreign language should also pay attention to the cultural aspects of the two languages being compared. To be able to speak a foreign language correctly and appropriately, foreign language learners need to understand the native speakers’ culture.
Lado gives an illustration that the response coming from three different people (American, Spanish, and Mexican) watching a matador against a bull in Spain will be different. To Americans, the duel between a matador and a bull is a show of force action; the bull is basically a weak animal and the matador is a strong person who is ready to fight and kill the bull. Because a bull is usually killed in the arena, the fight between a bull and a matador has negative connotation to American spectators. The matador is regarded as a fierce killer. Unlike American spectators, the Spanish people will regard the fight between a matador and a bull as a positive event. Bull fighting is regarded as an interesting sport and entertainment. The bull fighting between the matador and the bull symbolizes the triumph of art (strategy) towards brutality (or uncontrolled power).
The Mexicans who have learned the Spanish culture (because their country had been colonized by the Spaniards) will tend to react in the same way as the Spanish. Coming back to the story, the two people will feel surprised to see the American spectator react negatively towards the killing of the bull by the matador.
Lack of cross-cultural understanding will make people produce inappropriate sentences. Non-Javanese students coming from different parts of Indonesia often make mistakes when they communicate in Javanese. They speak “ngoko” (low level of Javanese) to respected people (such as senior lecturers, deans, rectors etc.). They think that “ngoko” or the low variety of Javanese is also applicable to be used to the respected people. Ngoko is suitable to be used to speak with friends or people whom we are familiar with. Another funny thing is that the foreigners who learn “krama inggil” (high variety of Javanese) often use it to communicate with becak drivers or children. “Krama inggil” should be used to speak with respected people in Java.
Sapir-Whorf
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf (two American experts in linguistics and culture) say that language can either help or hinder the native speakers in perceiving the world. Subhan (1989) writes that Javanese will say that cocks utter “kluruk” because to the Javanese hears the sound of cocks is “kukluruuk”. In contrast, the sound of cocks is “kongkorongok” for the Sundanese, “kukukukuruyuk” for the Sumatranese, and “cock-a-doodle-doo” for the English.
From the illustration above, we can conclude that “the world” seen or portrayed by different nations is different. This is due to the different native languages that they master. Before learning English, an Indonesian learner of English will find it difficult to accept the positive concept of “hostess” (as the owner of the house or party) because the word hostess in Indonesian has a negative connotation (=a high class prostitute).
English people will find it surprised to hear that the concept of brother, sister, uncle and aunt are not clear yet for the Javanese. Age is not so important for the English, but for the Javanese, age is very important. The difference in age brings the difference in meaning as found in the words: kakang-adhi, bulik-budhe, paklik (paman)-uwa (pakdhe).
Language and culture are closely related. Language can reflect the culture of a nation including the way people perceive the world. The Eskimos who are surrounded by ice and snow will have more words to describe the two objects. The same thing will be applied to the Egyptians and the Arabs who are familiar with sand, the Finish who are familiar with lakes, the Pacific people whom are familiar with sea water, and the tribes in Tibet who are familiar with high mountains.
The system of speech level (undha usuk) in Javanese should bring researchers to find the system of level in Javanese society (the high, the middle, and the low rank). There is also an interesting phenomenon in Javanese society. People differentiate the word drag into “njambak” (on the hair), “njiwit” (on the skin), “njewer” (on the ear), “nyiwel” (on the stomach), “nggondhol” (drag all), etc. This means that the Javanese like paying attention on details.
The English people are said to pay more attention on plurality and tenses because they express their culture(s) in words and sentences that show differences between singular, plural, and uncountable nouns and between present, past and future.
From all descriptions above, we can conclude that cross-cultural understanding is important to be studied by foreign language learners and foreign language teachers. A good speech is the one that is grammatically correct, correctly pronounced, and culturally acceptable or appropriate (*Subhan, 2003:66-71)
Reference
Subhan, bustami. 2003. Children Language Acquisition and ELT. Yogyakarta: LPPDMF.
__________. 1989.”Pemahaman Lintas Budaya dalam Pengajaran Bahasa Asing”. An article published in Kedaulatan Rakyat Yogyakarta.
Once, an amateur tourist guide who was also a foreign language (English) student in Yogyakarta felt embarrassed because he received an unsympathetic response from a tourist whom he greeted on the street. At a glance, the amateur guide had a fairly good English mastery because his sentence was grammatical and his pronunciation was good enough. However, how could it be?
While a tourist was riding a bike, the tourist guide followed him giving a greeting “Where are you going, Sir”. Without looking back, the tourist continued riding his bike and said, ”Mind your business!” (It means “take care of your own job” or “Urusi dirimu sendiri”). Feeling embarrassed, the amateur tourist guide stopped running and went to a shady place.
If we analyze the event we can say that the tourist guide did not make a grammatical mistake in his sentence. However, he made a mistake that was related to cultural aspect(s). In Indonesian culture, the question “Mau ke mana, Pak?” or “Mau ke mana, Bu?” becomes a flexible (accepted) greeting that can be addressed to a man or a woman, even though the man or woman is not known before. To Indonesians, the greeting “Mau ke mana, Pak?” which can be translated into “Where are you going, Sir?” sounds natural and flexible. This is due to the fact that people from different parts of Indonesia use the similar sentence in their regional languages such as ”Badhe tindak pundi, Pak?” (Javanese), “Badhe angkat ka mana, Pak?” (Sundanese), “Mau kemane, Pak?”(Jakartanese), and “Pai kama, Pak?” (Minangkabaunese).
In contrast, the tourist did not have the same cultural background with that of the tourist guide. In England and America, the question “Where are you going?” is an impolite greeting because it can be interpreted as intruding someone’s privacy. It is known that in western countries human rights and freedom are highly valued. There is no wonder that the response to the question “Where are you going” is “Mind your business!”.
In order to make the foreign language learners able to speak English grammatically and appropriately, two linguists from America, namely, Charles Fries and Robert Lado in Linguistics Across Cultures (l957) say that the most effective teaching materials are those which are based on the systematic comparison between the language of the learner (L1) and the target language (L2 or the language to be acquired by the students).
According to Fries and Lado, foreign language learners tend to transfer the system of their native language (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and accent) into the target language when they communicate both in spoken and written form. Consequently, foreign language teachers must be able to present their teaching materials in such a way that the learners can really understand and master the rules of the target language as to how to express their ideas and feelings (which are usually made in L1).
Based on the comparison between L1 and L2, there will be similarities and differences. Similarities will bring easiness, whereas the differences will bring problems or difficulties. Problems or difficulties must be solved and solving problems needs time (teaching hours). There is another assumption that the degree of difficulty will vary among the learners of English in the world. Moreover, the learners of English in the world have different cultural backgrounds.
As an illustration, the difficulty of Indonesian learners of English will be different from that of German, French, Dutch, or Italian learners of English. Conversely, Indonesian students will find it easier to study Malay language than the German, the Dutch, the French or the Italian do. Indonesian is close to Malay language because the two languages came from the same source.
Cultural Aspect
After quoting Fries’ idea, Robert Lado asserts that teachers of a foreign language should also pay attention to the cultural aspects of the two languages being compared. To be able to speak a foreign language correctly and appropriately, foreign language learners need to understand the native speakers’ culture.
Lado gives an illustration that the response coming from three different people (American, Spanish, and Mexican) watching a matador against a bull in Spain will be different. To Americans, the duel between a matador and a bull is a show of force action; the bull is basically a weak animal and the matador is a strong person who is ready to fight and kill the bull. Because a bull is usually killed in the arena, the fight between a bull and a matador has negative connotation to American spectators. The matador is regarded as a fierce killer. Unlike American spectators, the Spanish people will regard the fight between a matador and a bull as a positive event. Bull fighting is regarded as an interesting sport and entertainment. The bull fighting between the matador and the bull symbolizes the triumph of art (strategy) towards brutality (or uncontrolled power).
The Mexicans who have learned the Spanish culture (because their country had been colonized by the Spaniards) will tend to react in the same way as the Spanish. Coming back to the story, the two people will feel surprised to see the American spectator react negatively towards the killing of the bull by the matador.
Lack of cross-cultural understanding will make people produce inappropriate sentences. Non-Javanese students coming from different parts of Indonesia often make mistakes when they communicate in Javanese. They speak “ngoko” (low level of Javanese) to respected people (such as senior lecturers, deans, rectors etc.). They think that “ngoko” or the low variety of Javanese is also applicable to be used to the respected people. Ngoko is suitable to be used to speak with friends or people whom we are familiar with. Another funny thing is that the foreigners who learn “krama inggil” (high variety of Javanese) often use it to communicate with becak drivers or children. “Krama inggil” should be used to speak with respected people in Java.
Sapir-Whorf
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf (two American experts in linguistics and culture) say that language can either help or hinder the native speakers in perceiving the world. Subhan (1989) writes that Javanese will say that cocks utter “kluruk” because to the Javanese hears the sound of cocks is “kukluruuk”. In contrast, the sound of cocks is “kongkorongok” for the Sundanese, “kukukukuruyuk” for the Sumatranese, and “cock-a-doodle-doo” for the English.
From the illustration above, we can conclude that “the world” seen or portrayed by different nations is different. This is due to the different native languages that they master. Before learning English, an Indonesian learner of English will find it difficult to accept the positive concept of “hostess” (as the owner of the house or party) because the word hostess in Indonesian has a negative connotation (=a high class prostitute).
English people will find it surprised to hear that the concept of brother, sister, uncle and aunt are not clear yet for the Javanese. Age is not so important for the English, but for the Javanese, age is very important. The difference in age brings the difference in meaning as found in the words: kakang-adhi, bulik-budhe, paklik (paman)-uwa (pakdhe).
Language and culture are closely related. Language can reflect the culture of a nation including the way people perceive the world. The Eskimos who are surrounded by ice and snow will have more words to describe the two objects. The same thing will be applied to the Egyptians and the Arabs who are familiar with sand, the Finish who are familiar with lakes, the Pacific people whom are familiar with sea water, and the tribes in Tibet who are familiar with high mountains.
The system of speech level (undha usuk) in Javanese should bring researchers to find the system of level in Javanese society (the high, the middle, and the low rank). There is also an interesting phenomenon in Javanese society. People differentiate the word drag into “njambak” (on the hair), “njiwit” (on the skin), “njewer” (on the ear), “nyiwel” (on the stomach), “nggondhol” (drag all), etc. This means that the Javanese like paying attention on details.
The English people are said to pay more attention on plurality and tenses because they express their culture(s) in words and sentences that show differences between singular, plural, and uncountable nouns and between present, past and future.
From all descriptions above, we can conclude that cross-cultural understanding is important to be studied by foreign language learners and foreign language teachers. A good speech is the one that is grammatically correct, correctly pronounced, and culturally acceptable or appropriate (*Subhan, 2003:66-71)
Reference
Subhan, bustami. 2003. Children Language Acquisition and ELT. Yogyakarta: LPPDMF.
__________. 1989.”Pemahaman Lintas Budaya dalam Pengajaran Bahasa Asing”. An article published in Kedaulatan Rakyat Yogyakarta.
Thursday, April 12, 2012
STATUS OF VOCABULARY, KEY CONCEPTS, IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY AND LEXICAL ITEMS, AND TEACHING VOCABULARY (SUMMARY)
By
Much Deiniatur
In an English course, there are four skills that must be taught by teachers, namely: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Reading activities needs accuracy to understand words in each paragraph so they know true information. Learners needs accuracy structure in arranges words in writing skills. listening needs accuracy in analyse what native speaker’s say. Speaking needs accuracy in pronounce English words and intonation. Reading is one of language skills. Teachers have to teach reading words, phrases, sentences, or texts in English. Reading skill is taught by teachers to make students have a lot of understanding of vocabulary.
According to Webster’s Ninth collegiate dictionary (1978), vocabulary is: a.)A list or collection of words and phrase usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined, b.) A sum or stock of words employed by a language group individual or a work or in a field of knowledge, c.) A list or collection of terms or codes available for use.
From the definitions above, it shows that vocabulary is a component of language and number of words used by a person, class, profession, etc. In the communication and every aspect such as in trade, education, business, etc.
According to Doff (1990:11), There are some techniques for teaching vocabulary, especially new words: Say the words clearly and write it on the board, Get the class to repeat the word in chorus,Translate the word into the students’ own language, Ask the students to translate the word, Draw a picture to show what the words mean, Give an English example to show the word is used, Ask a question by using the new word.
A Lexical item (or lexical unit, lexical entry) is a single word or chain of words that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon (vocabulary). Examples are "cat", "traffic light", "take care of", "by-the-way", and "it's raining cats and dogs". Lexical items can be generally understood to convey a single meaning, much as a lexeme, but are not limited to single words. Lexical items are like semes in that they are "natural units" translating between languages, or in learning a new language. In this last sense, it is sometimes said that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, and not lexicalized grammar. The entire store of lexical items in a language is called its lexis.(Wikipedia).
In his classification, for the lexical units, Lewis (1997:255-270) suggest the following units:
Words: book, pencil, chair,etc.
Multy word items: to catch a cold, we’ll see respectively, etc.
Polywords: put off, by the way,of course,etc.
Collocation (word partnership): boil meat, toast bread, etc.
Institutionalized Expression: not yet, certainly, please,etc
Chunking: terrible accident, sense of humor, totally convinced, etc.
Much Deiniatur
In an English course, there are four skills that must be taught by teachers, namely: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Reading activities needs accuracy to understand words in each paragraph so they know true information. Learners needs accuracy structure in arranges words in writing skills. listening needs accuracy in analyse what native speaker’s say. Speaking needs accuracy in pronounce English words and intonation. Reading is one of language skills. Teachers have to teach reading words, phrases, sentences, or texts in English. Reading skill is taught by teachers to make students have a lot of understanding of vocabulary.
According to Webster’s Ninth collegiate dictionary (1978), vocabulary is: a.)A list or collection of words and phrase usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined, b.) A sum or stock of words employed by a language group individual or a work or in a field of knowledge, c.) A list or collection of terms or codes available for use.
From the definitions above, it shows that vocabulary is a component of language and number of words used by a person, class, profession, etc. In the communication and every aspect such as in trade, education, business, etc.
According to Doff (1990:11), There are some techniques for teaching vocabulary, especially new words: Say the words clearly and write it on the board, Get the class to repeat the word in chorus,Translate the word into the students’ own language, Ask the students to translate the word, Draw a picture to show what the words mean, Give an English example to show the word is used, Ask a question by using the new word.
A Lexical item (or lexical unit, lexical entry) is a single word or chain of words that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon (vocabulary). Examples are "cat", "traffic light", "take care of", "by-the-way", and "it's raining cats and dogs". Lexical items can be generally understood to convey a single meaning, much as a lexeme, but are not limited to single words. Lexical items are like semes in that they are "natural units" translating between languages, or in learning a new language. In this last sense, it is sometimes said that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, and not lexicalized grammar. The entire store of lexical items in a language is called its lexis.(Wikipedia).
In his classification, for the lexical units, Lewis (1997:255-270) suggest the following units:
Words: book, pencil, chair,etc.
Multy word items: to catch a cold, we’ll see respectively, etc.
Polywords: put off, by the way,of course,etc.
Collocation (word partnership): boil meat, toast bread, etc.
Institutionalized Expression: not yet, certainly, please,etc
Chunking: terrible accident, sense of humor, totally convinced, etc.
Wednesday, April 11, 2012
KHITTAH PERJUANGAN HIMPUNAN MAHASISWA ISLAM (RANGKUMAN)
Khittah Perjuangan merupakan paradigma gerakan atau manhaj yang merupakan penjelasan utuh tentang pilihan ideologis, yaitu prinsip-prinsip penting dan nilai-nilai yang dianut oleh HMI sebagai tafsir utuh antara azas, tujuan, usaha dan independensi HMI. Definisi ini merupakan kelanjutan dan pengembangan dari berbagai tafsir azas yang pernah lahir dalam sejarahnya. Tercatat bahwa sejak didirikanya di Yogyakarta pada tanggal 14 Rabiul Awal 1366 H atau 5 Pebruari 1947 M, HMI pernah memakai sejumlah tafsir azas seperti; tafsir azas HMI (1957), Kepribadian HMI atau Citra Diri (1963), Garis-garis Pokok Perjuangan (1967) dan Nilai-nilai Dasar Perjuangan (1969).
ASAS
1.Keyakinan Muslim
2.Wawasan Ilmu
3.Wawasan Sosial
4.Kepemimpinan
5.Etos Perjuangan
6.Hari Kemudian
TUJUAN
1. Hakekat Tujuan HMI
Frasa kalimat “terbinanya mahasiswa menjadi insan ulil albab …………”
1.Hanya takut kepada Allah
2.Tekun beribadah tiap waktu
3.Bersungguh-sungguh mencari ilmu,
4.Mampu mengambil hikmah atas anugerah Allah
5.Selalu bertafakur atas ciptaan Allah yang ada dilangit dan di bumi.
6.Mengambil pelajaran dari sejarah 6 dan kitab kitab yang diwahyukan oleh Allah
7.Kritis dalam mencermati berbagai pendapat, mampu memilih yang benar dan yang
terbaik
8.Tegas dalam mengambil sikap dan pemihakan atas pilihannya
9.Tidak terpesona atas pandangan mayoritas yang menyesatkan
10.Dakwah dengan sungguh-sungguh kepada masyarakat dan bersedia menanggung segala
resikonya
Frasa kalimat yang tercantum dalam tujuan HMI ”……… dan turut bertanggungjawab atas terwujudnya masyarakat yang diridhoi oleh Allah subhanahu wata’ala” merupakan suatu istilah yang sama maknanya dengan istilah “Baldhatun Thayyibatun Warabbun Ghafurr”.
1.Adanya semangat rabbaniyah atau rabbiyah yang terformulasikan dalam konsep tauhid
2.Tegaknya keadilan yang bersendikan keteguhan pada hukum
3.Adanya sistem amar ma’ruf nahi munkar dalam sistem sosial masyarakat
4.Memiliki semangat keterbukaan dengan selalu berprasangka baik
5.Menjunjung tinggi sikap musaywarah dan sikap egaliter dalam suasana persamaan hak \
dan kewajiban
6.Memiliki semangat persaudaraan (ukhuwah), saling memahami, toleransi, saling
menasehati dan tolong menolong.
7.Tumbuhnya sikap untuk tdak selalu merasa benar atau tidak adanya klaim kebenaran
2. Hakekat Perkaderan dan Perjuangan
Perkaderan HMI merupakan upaya peningkatan kualitas anggota-anggotanya dengan memberikan pemahaman ajaran dan nilai kebenaran Islam secara penuh hikmah, kesabaran dan kasih sayang. Perkaderan tersebut meliputi pembinaan sikap serta penambahan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang memungkinkan kader HMI tampil sebagai sosok khalifah Allah di muka bumi. Sedangkan hakekat perjuangan HMI adalah kesungguhan melaksanakan ajaran Islam pada kehidupan masyarakat secara bertahap dan konsisten diseluruh aspeknya.
USAHA
1.Amar Ma’ruf
2.Nahi Munkar
3.Pembentukan Individu.
•Mu’abbid : menjadi insan yang tekun beribadah, mulai dari ibadah yang terkait pada dirinya maupun terkait pada lingkungannya.
•Mujahid : memliki semangat juang yang tinggi sehingga ia memiliki pemahaman dan kemampuan berjihad dalam garis agama.
•Mujtahid :memiliki kemampuan berijtihad sehingga segala tindakannya didasarkan pada pilihan sadar dari dalam dirinya.
•Mujadid :memiliki kemampuan dalam melakukan pembaharuan di lingkungan sekitarnya.
4.Pembentukan Masyarakat.
INDEPENDENSI
1. Sifat Independen HMI
Secara teknis, independnsi berarti HMI tidak menjadi bawahan (underbouw) organisasi lain. HMI juga tidak akan membuat ikatan organisatoris dalam bentuk permanen dengan pihak lain (individu atau organisasi) yang menetapkan aturan main yang lebih tinggi dan mengikat HMI secara organisatoris.
2.Sikap Indpenden Kader HMI
Beberapa sikap terpenting adalah cenderung kepada kebenaran (hanief), merdeka, kritis, jujur, progresif, dan adil.
ASAS
1.Keyakinan Muslim
2.Wawasan Ilmu
3.Wawasan Sosial
4.Kepemimpinan
5.Etos Perjuangan
6.Hari Kemudian
TUJUAN
1. Hakekat Tujuan HMI
Frasa kalimat “terbinanya mahasiswa menjadi insan ulil albab …………”
1.Hanya takut kepada Allah
2.Tekun beribadah tiap waktu
3.Bersungguh-sungguh mencari ilmu,
4.Mampu mengambil hikmah atas anugerah Allah
5.Selalu bertafakur atas ciptaan Allah yang ada dilangit dan di bumi.
6.Mengambil pelajaran dari sejarah 6 dan kitab kitab yang diwahyukan oleh Allah
7.Kritis dalam mencermati berbagai pendapat, mampu memilih yang benar dan yang
terbaik
8.Tegas dalam mengambil sikap dan pemihakan atas pilihannya
9.Tidak terpesona atas pandangan mayoritas yang menyesatkan
10.Dakwah dengan sungguh-sungguh kepada masyarakat dan bersedia menanggung segala
resikonya
Frasa kalimat yang tercantum dalam tujuan HMI ”……… dan turut bertanggungjawab atas terwujudnya masyarakat yang diridhoi oleh Allah subhanahu wata’ala” merupakan suatu istilah yang sama maknanya dengan istilah “Baldhatun Thayyibatun Warabbun Ghafurr”.
1.Adanya semangat rabbaniyah atau rabbiyah yang terformulasikan dalam konsep tauhid
2.Tegaknya keadilan yang bersendikan keteguhan pada hukum
3.Adanya sistem amar ma’ruf nahi munkar dalam sistem sosial masyarakat
4.Memiliki semangat keterbukaan dengan selalu berprasangka baik
5.Menjunjung tinggi sikap musaywarah dan sikap egaliter dalam suasana persamaan hak \
dan kewajiban
6.Memiliki semangat persaudaraan (ukhuwah), saling memahami, toleransi, saling
menasehati dan tolong menolong.
7.Tumbuhnya sikap untuk tdak selalu merasa benar atau tidak adanya klaim kebenaran
2. Hakekat Perkaderan dan Perjuangan
Perkaderan HMI merupakan upaya peningkatan kualitas anggota-anggotanya dengan memberikan pemahaman ajaran dan nilai kebenaran Islam secara penuh hikmah, kesabaran dan kasih sayang. Perkaderan tersebut meliputi pembinaan sikap serta penambahan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang memungkinkan kader HMI tampil sebagai sosok khalifah Allah di muka bumi. Sedangkan hakekat perjuangan HMI adalah kesungguhan melaksanakan ajaran Islam pada kehidupan masyarakat secara bertahap dan konsisten diseluruh aspeknya.
USAHA
1.Amar Ma’ruf
2.Nahi Munkar
3.Pembentukan Individu.
•Mu’abbid : menjadi insan yang tekun beribadah, mulai dari ibadah yang terkait pada dirinya maupun terkait pada lingkungannya.
•Mujahid : memliki semangat juang yang tinggi sehingga ia memiliki pemahaman dan kemampuan berjihad dalam garis agama.
•Mujtahid :memiliki kemampuan berijtihad sehingga segala tindakannya didasarkan pada pilihan sadar dari dalam dirinya.
•Mujadid :memiliki kemampuan dalam melakukan pembaharuan di lingkungan sekitarnya.
4.Pembentukan Masyarakat.
INDEPENDENSI
1. Sifat Independen HMI
Secara teknis, independnsi berarti HMI tidak menjadi bawahan (underbouw) organisasi lain. HMI juga tidak akan membuat ikatan organisatoris dalam bentuk permanen dengan pihak lain (individu atau organisasi) yang menetapkan aturan main yang lebih tinggi dan mengikat HMI secara organisatoris.
2.Sikap Indpenden Kader HMI
Beberapa sikap terpenting adalah cenderung kepada kebenaran (hanief), merdeka, kritis, jujur, progresif, dan adil.
STATUS OF VOCABULARY, KEY CONCEPTS, IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY AND LEXICAL ITEMS, AND TEACHING VOCABULARY
Much Deiniatur
Ahmad Dahlan University
Abstarct
Vocabulary should be considered as an integral part of learning a foreign language since it leads the way to communication. It also should be rocognized as a central element in language instruction from the begining stages. Vocabulary helps the learner more not only reading comprehension, but also in achieving more survival communication.
A lexical item is a single unit belonging to some lexical category, having an identifiable meaning or grammatical function and fairly consistent phonological shape. The lexical approach makes a distinction between vocabulary traditionally understood as a stock of individual words with fixed meanings and lexis which includes not only the single words, but also the word combinations that we keep in our mental lexicons.
At times, language teaching methodologies have attached great importance to vocabulary learning, and sometimes it has been neglected. In practice, grammar and pronunciation are at the core of language learning, while vocabulary is neglected in most foreign language classes. Learning vocabulary is as a key element to achieve a high level of profiency in the target language. Teachers of foreign language are paying special attention to foreign language vocabulary acquisition. It is believed that having a large and varied vocabulary is the indicator of communicative competence and it is one of the important aspect of language learning.
Key words: vocabulary, lexical items, teaching vocabulary
A. INTRODUCTION
Teaching English is a process to convey knowledge of English from teachers to students in some ways. First, teaching English as a first language. Second, teaching English as a foreign language. In indonesian, English is taught as a foreign language, because Indonesians do not speak English in their daily activities.
In an English course, there are four skills that must be taught by teachers, namely: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Reading activities needs accuracy to understand words in each paragraph so they know true information. Learners needs accuracy structure in arranges words in writing skills. listening needs accuracy in analyse what native speaker’s say. Speaking needs accuracy in pronounce English words and intonation. Reading is one of language skills. Teachers have to teach reading words, phrases, sentences, or texts in English. Reading skill is taught by teachers to make students have a lot of understanding of vocabulary.
Writing is a part of English skill. Teachers have to teach how to arranges words into a phrases, sentences, or texts. Sub skills that supports students in writing is structure or grammar so that can produce a good sentences.
Listening is activity to hear and understand the native speaker’s word or someone who speaks English. Teachers have to teach students how to pronounce English words like way of native speakers’ do speaks. Also, teachers drill students in listening to infer information through speaker’s intonation.
Speaking is producing words in a certain language orally. Speaking is not only a process to say something, but also pronouncing words with acceptable intonation and stressing. Teachers have to teach students how to accurately respond a statement by pronounce words correctly
B. DISCUSSION
1. Vocabulary
In the past, vocabulary teaching and learning were often given little priority in second language programs, but recently there has been a renewed interest in the nature of vocabulary and its role in learning and teaching.
According to Kruse (1987:305), vocabulary, like grammar is an essential component of all uses of language. She also adds:
“The skill needed to be able to guess the meaning of words from context, and discusses exercise that can be used to help students recognize prefixes, suffixes, and roots; read diagram and charts which may provides clues to the meaning of new vocabulary items; recognize definitions, infer meaning of words from context; and use grammatical clues to infer word meaning.”
Although vocabulary is the one that is emphasized, it does not mean other kinds of language components-grammar and pronunciation-are less important. All of these aspects are learned together, because they are attached one to another. Vocabulary is extremely large and also varies. Nobody ever learns all the words in any language, but they can enlarge the number of words they have. Larger vocabulary the students have can help them in many ways; students’ reading ability and writing ability will improve as they learn new words, and the more words they know the better their chance will be to do well on the vocabulary questions, in the school. Therefore, it is highly essential for English teacher to help their students in mastering vocabulary along with grammar and pronunciation.
a. The Meaning of Vocabulary
In some literature, we find the meaning of vocabulary. There are some definitions of vocabulary. According to Kridalaksana (1993:127), vocabulary is a component of a language that maintains all of information about meaning and using word in a language.
According to Webster’s Ninth collegiate dictionary (1978), vocabulary is:
a. A list or collection of words and phrase usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined.
b. A sum or stock of words employed by a language group individual or a work or in a field of knowledge.
c. A list or collection of terms or codes available for use.
From the definitions above, it shows that vocabulary is a component of language and number of words used by a person, class, profession, etc. In the communication and every aspect such as in trade, education, business, etc.
According to Haley (2006:3) word is a combination of vocal sounds or one such sound, used in language to express an idea (to denote a thing, attribute,or relation), and constitutingan ultimate minimal element of speech having a meaning as such; a vocable.
b. Kinds of Vocabulary
There are many classifications made by the experts in language area about the types of vocabulary. Syah and Enong (1980:1) divide vocabulary into two parts, namely: general vocabulary and special vocabulary. The general vocabulary is the words that are used in general; there is no limited of field and user. Whereas special vocabulary, is the words that are used in the certain field or job, profession or special science and technology.
Aeborsold and Field (1997:139) classified vocabulary into: active and passive vocabulary.
a. Active vocabulary refers to put items which the learner can use appropriately in speaking or writing and it is also called as productive vocabulary, although, in fact, it is more difficult to put into practice. It means that to use the productive vocabulary, the students are supposed to know how to pronounce it well, they must know and be able to use grammar of the target language, they are also hoped the familiar with the collocation and understand the connotation meaning of the words, this type is often used in speaking and writing skill.
b. Passive vocabulary refers to language items that can be recognized and understood in the context of reading or listening, and also called as receptive vocabulary.
Passive vocabulary or comprehensions consist of the words comprehended by people, when they read or listen.
In the first level of a course, the active vocabulary is more prominent. But when the students in higher level of study such as intermediate or advanced level passive vocabulary is more useful.
From the explanation above, we know that every expert in every book is different in classifying the kinds of vocabulary, because every person has different ways in showing and telling their opinions and ideas. It means that vocabulary is containing of two kinds function and content words.
c. Teaching English Vocabulary
a. The Principles of Teaching Vocabulary
The writer has assumption to fit explanation on some principles of teaching vocabulary, there are:
1) The teaching of vocabulary should be based on the students’ ability.
2) The teaching of vocabulary should be suitable with student’s capability.
3) The words are taught from easiest to the difficult.
One of the principles that had been found useful in all methodological decisions is the principles of time effectiveness. The key in all, vocabulary teaching is to keep motivation high while encouraging students to develop strategies that they can continue to use once they leave the classroom.
According to Wallace (1982:52), explains that to know a word in a language as well as the native speakers knows it needs the ability to:
1. Recognize it in its spoken or written form.
2. Recall it will.
3. Relate it to an appropriate object or concept.
4. Use it in the appropriate grammatical form.
5. In speech, pronounce it in a recognizable way.
6. In writing spell it correctly
7. Use it with the words it correctly goes with i.e. in the correct collocation.
8. Use it at the appropriate level of formality.
9. Aware of its connotations and associations.
b. Some Techniques on Teaching Vocabulary
Generally, as a beginner, to understand the meaning of sentence is not easy as to understand word by word. If it is not practiced often, automatically it will reduce or lose. To help students maintain the capacity of words what has been taught, games can be used as an aid.
Some techniques on teaching vocabulary can be used to explain the meaning of words, and every teacher has to determine the best technique to teach or explain the meaning of words. In determination, a teacher needs to consider whether the technique is able to improve student’s retention.
According to Doff (1990:11), There are some techniques for teaching vocabulary, especially new words:
1) Say the words clearly and write it on the board.
2) Get the class to repeat the word in chorus.
3) Translate the word into the students’ own language.
4) Ask the students to translate the word.
5) Draw a picture to show what the words mean.
6) Give an English example to show the word is used.
7) Ask a question by using the new word.
2. Lexical Item
a. Definition of Lexical item
A Lexical item (or lexical unit, lexical entry) is a single word or chain of words that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon (vocabulary). Examples are "cat", "traffic light", "take care of", "by-the-way", and "it's raining cats and dogs". Lexical items can be generally understood to convey a single meaning, much as a lexeme, but are not limited to single words. Lexical items are like semes in that they are "natural units" translating between languages, or in learning a new language. In this last sense, it is sometimes said that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, and not lexicalized grammar. The entire store of lexical items in a language is called its lexis.(Wikipedia).
b. Kinds of Lexical item
In his classification, for the lexical units, Lewis (1997:255-270) suggest the following units:
a. words:
Words are considered the most familiar type of lexical items. For research purposes, little information needed to be stated now, though they do pose certain methodological problems as far as the criteria of: "selection, sequence, familiarity and learnability" are concerned. Examples of this category are "book, pen, pencil, chair, car", etc.
b. Multi-word Items:
This category involves hundreds of lexical items which are multiword units; each one is recognized as having a unique value, even if they could be further analyzed into components. These multi-word units can usefully be subcategorized, but any categorization will involve marginal cases and overlapping categories of this type, the two most important groups are collocations and institutionalized expressions such as "to catch a cold" and "We'll see respectively".
c. Polywords:
Polywords, like the single word are frequently found in dictionaries. They refer to short-two or three words which may belong to any word class and the meaning of the whole group may range from immediately apparent ortotally different from the component words. Phrasal verbs are the only kind of ployword which is basically featured in language teaching. They are some examples of this kind such as: "put off, by the way, concerning with, of course, by and by, from now on, upside down", etc.
d. Collocation: (word-partnership)
Collocation refers to the tendency in which certain words occur together such as 'grill or boil meat', 'toast bread', etc.
e. Institutionalized Expressions
Institutionalized expressions are a kind of multi-word units. They allow the language user to manage aspects ofthe social interaction and, thus, they are considered as pragmatic in nature. These fixed institutionalized expressions can be classified as follows:
a. Short, scarcely grammaticalised utterances, such as: "not yet, certainly, just a moment, please," etc.
b. Sentence heads of frames represents the first words of utterances serving mainly a pragmatic intention such as: " sorry to interpret, but can I just say , that's all very well, but , I see what you mean, but I wonder if it wouldn't be better to ," etc.
c. Full sentence with readily identifiable pragmatic meaning, which are easily recognized as fully institutionalized.
f. Chunking
Chunking includes collocations, fixed and semi-fixed expressions and idioms. It plays a dominant role in the production of language. Here are: (a) examples of lexical chunks that are not collocations such as: "by the way, up to now, upside down, out of my mind", etc. (b) examples of lexical chunks that are collocations such as: "totally convinced, strange accent, terrible accident, sense of humor", etc.
c. Aspects of the Lexical Approach
There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken intonconsideration in teaching vocabulary. The following aspects, referred to them by Moras and Carlos (2001: 1-2) and these are:
1. Boundaries between conceptual meaning
It means knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g., cup, mug, bowl).
2. Polysemy
It means distinguishing between the various meanings of a single word form with several, but closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organization)
3. Homonymy
It means distinguishing between the various meanings of a single word form which has several meanings but are not closely related (e.g., a file: used to put paper in or a tool).
4. Homophony
It means the understanding of words that have the same pronunciation, but different spellings and meanings (e.g., flour, flower).
5. Synonymy
It means the distinguishing between the different shades ofmeaning that synonymous words have (e.g., extend, expand, increase).
6. Affective meaning
It means the distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speakers' attitude or the situation. Socio-cultural association of lexical items is another important factor.
7. Style, register, dialect
It means the ability to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation.
8. Translation
It means the awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g. false cognates).
9. Chunk of language
It means the multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, and lexical phrases.
10. Grammar of vocabulary
It means learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g., sleep, slept, sleeping, able, unable, disability).
11. Pronunciation
It means the ability to recognize and reproduce items in speech.
C. CONCLUSION
In the past there was a period of time when vocabulary was neglected. With the current trends vocabulary began to gain importance. So students should be aware of different vocabulary learning strategies. English teachers should keep in mind the fact that students have to be aware of what “knowing word” means. They should know that just knowing the definition or mother tongue equivalent of a word does not mean that they know the word. Students should be encourage to develop a system of vocabulary learning which will lead them to be independent learners.
The teachers should be open to innovation in the field and encourage students to develop strategies for handling new vocabulary. They should tolerate any type of prejudgements towards vocabulary learning and try to make the students like vocabulary learning and vocabulary studies.
REFERENCES
Richards & Renandya.2002. Methodology in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kruise, Anna.1987. Methodology in TESOL; A Book of Reading. New York: Newbury House Publisher.
Kridalaksana, Harimukti.1993. Kamus Linguistik Edisi Ketiga. Jakarta: Pt. Gramedia Pustaka.
Merriem.1978. Webster’s Ninth Collegiate Dictionary. New York: Merriem Webster’s Inc, 1978.
Syah, Djalinus & Enong, Azimar.1980. Tata Bahasa Inggris Modern Dalam Tanya Jawab.Jakarta: C.V Miswar.
Aeborsold, Jo & Lee, mary. 1997. From Reader to Reading Teacher. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wallace, Michael. 1982. Teaching Vocabulary. Oxford: English Language book society.
Doff, Adrian.1990. Teach English Fourth Printing. Cambridge: Teacher Training and Development.
Harley, Heidi. 2006. English Words, A linguistic Introduction. Blackwell Publishing..
Lewis, M.1997. Pedagogical Implication of the Lexical approach. In J. Coadi and T. Huckin, Second Language Acquistion; A Rationale for Pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Moras, Solange and Sao Carlos. Teaching Vocabulary to Advanced Students:A lexical Approach. In Karen’s Linguistics Issues, July 2001.
Ahmad Dahlan University
Abstarct
Vocabulary should be considered as an integral part of learning a foreign language since it leads the way to communication. It also should be rocognized as a central element in language instruction from the begining stages. Vocabulary helps the learner more not only reading comprehension, but also in achieving more survival communication.
A lexical item is a single unit belonging to some lexical category, having an identifiable meaning or grammatical function and fairly consistent phonological shape. The lexical approach makes a distinction between vocabulary traditionally understood as a stock of individual words with fixed meanings and lexis which includes not only the single words, but also the word combinations that we keep in our mental lexicons.
At times, language teaching methodologies have attached great importance to vocabulary learning, and sometimes it has been neglected. In practice, grammar and pronunciation are at the core of language learning, while vocabulary is neglected in most foreign language classes. Learning vocabulary is as a key element to achieve a high level of profiency in the target language. Teachers of foreign language are paying special attention to foreign language vocabulary acquisition. It is believed that having a large and varied vocabulary is the indicator of communicative competence and it is one of the important aspect of language learning.
Key words: vocabulary, lexical items, teaching vocabulary
A. INTRODUCTION
Teaching English is a process to convey knowledge of English from teachers to students in some ways. First, teaching English as a first language. Second, teaching English as a foreign language. In indonesian, English is taught as a foreign language, because Indonesians do not speak English in their daily activities.
In an English course, there are four skills that must be taught by teachers, namely: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Reading activities needs accuracy to understand words in each paragraph so they know true information. Learners needs accuracy structure in arranges words in writing skills. listening needs accuracy in analyse what native speaker’s say. Speaking needs accuracy in pronounce English words and intonation. Reading is one of language skills. Teachers have to teach reading words, phrases, sentences, or texts in English. Reading skill is taught by teachers to make students have a lot of understanding of vocabulary.
Writing is a part of English skill. Teachers have to teach how to arranges words into a phrases, sentences, or texts. Sub skills that supports students in writing is structure or grammar so that can produce a good sentences.
Listening is activity to hear and understand the native speaker’s word or someone who speaks English. Teachers have to teach students how to pronounce English words like way of native speakers’ do speaks. Also, teachers drill students in listening to infer information through speaker’s intonation.
Speaking is producing words in a certain language orally. Speaking is not only a process to say something, but also pronouncing words with acceptable intonation and stressing. Teachers have to teach students how to accurately respond a statement by pronounce words correctly
B. DISCUSSION
1. Vocabulary
In the past, vocabulary teaching and learning were often given little priority in second language programs, but recently there has been a renewed interest in the nature of vocabulary and its role in learning and teaching.
According to Kruse (1987:305), vocabulary, like grammar is an essential component of all uses of language. She also adds:
“The skill needed to be able to guess the meaning of words from context, and discusses exercise that can be used to help students recognize prefixes, suffixes, and roots; read diagram and charts which may provides clues to the meaning of new vocabulary items; recognize definitions, infer meaning of words from context; and use grammatical clues to infer word meaning.”
Although vocabulary is the one that is emphasized, it does not mean other kinds of language components-grammar and pronunciation-are less important. All of these aspects are learned together, because they are attached one to another. Vocabulary is extremely large and also varies. Nobody ever learns all the words in any language, but they can enlarge the number of words they have. Larger vocabulary the students have can help them in many ways; students’ reading ability and writing ability will improve as they learn new words, and the more words they know the better their chance will be to do well on the vocabulary questions, in the school. Therefore, it is highly essential for English teacher to help their students in mastering vocabulary along with grammar and pronunciation.
a. The Meaning of Vocabulary
In some literature, we find the meaning of vocabulary. There are some definitions of vocabulary. According to Kridalaksana (1993:127), vocabulary is a component of a language that maintains all of information about meaning and using word in a language.
According to Webster’s Ninth collegiate dictionary (1978), vocabulary is:
a. A list or collection of words and phrase usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined.
b. A sum or stock of words employed by a language group individual or a work or in a field of knowledge.
c. A list or collection of terms or codes available for use.
From the definitions above, it shows that vocabulary is a component of language and number of words used by a person, class, profession, etc. In the communication and every aspect such as in trade, education, business, etc.
According to Haley (2006:3) word is a combination of vocal sounds or one such sound, used in language to express an idea (to denote a thing, attribute,or relation), and constitutingan ultimate minimal element of speech having a meaning as such; a vocable.
b. Kinds of Vocabulary
There are many classifications made by the experts in language area about the types of vocabulary. Syah and Enong (1980:1) divide vocabulary into two parts, namely: general vocabulary and special vocabulary. The general vocabulary is the words that are used in general; there is no limited of field and user. Whereas special vocabulary, is the words that are used in the certain field or job, profession or special science and technology.
Aeborsold and Field (1997:139) classified vocabulary into: active and passive vocabulary.
a. Active vocabulary refers to put items which the learner can use appropriately in speaking or writing and it is also called as productive vocabulary, although, in fact, it is more difficult to put into practice. It means that to use the productive vocabulary, the students are supposed to know how to pronounce it well, they must know and be able to use grammar of the target language, they are also hoped the familiar with the collocation and understand the connotation meaning of the words, this type is often used in speaking and writing skill.
b. Passive vocabulary refers to language items that can be recognized and understood in the context of reading or listening, and also called as receptive vocabulary.
Passive vocabulary or comprehensions consist of the words comprehended by people, when they read or listen.
In the first level of a course, the active vocabulary is more prominent. But when the students in higher level of study such as intermediate or advanced level passive vocabulary is more useful.
From the explanation above, we know that every expert in every book is different in classifying the kinds of vocabulary, because every person has different ways in showing and telling their opinions and ideas. It means that vocabulary is containing of two kinds function and content words.
c. Teaching English Vocabulary
a. The Principles of Teaching Vocabulary
The writer has assumption to fit explanation on some principles of teaching vocabulary, there are:
1) The teaching of vocabulary should be based on the students’ ability.
2) The teaching of vocabulary should be suitable with student’s capability.
3) The words are taught from easiest to the difficult.
One of the principles that had been found useful in all methodological decisions is the principles of time effectiveness. The key in all, vocabulary teaching is to keep motivation high while encouraging students to develop strategies that they can continue to use once they leave the classroom.
According to Wallace (1982:52), explains that to know a word in a language as well as the native speakers knows it needs the ability to:
1. Recognize it in its spoken or written form.
2. Recall it will.
3. Relate it to an appropriate object or concept.
4. Use it in the appropriate grammatical form.
5. In speech, pronounce it in a recognizable way.
6. In writing spell it correctly
7. Use it with the words it correctly goes with i.e. in the correct collocation.
8. Use it at the appropriate level of formality.
9. Aware of its connotations and associations.
b. Some Techniques on Teaching Vocabulary
Generally, as a beginner, to understand the meaning of sentence is not easy as to understand word by word. If it is not practiced often, automatically it will reduce or lose. To help students maintain the capacity of words what has been taught, games can be used as an aid.
Some techniques on teaching vocabulary can be used to explain the meaning of words, and every teacher has to determine the best technique to teach or explain the meaning of words. In determination, a teacher needs to consider whether the technique is able to improve student’s retention.
According to Doff (1990:11), There are some techniques for teaching vocabulary, especially new words:
1) Say the words clearly and write it on the board.
2) Get the class to repeat the word in chorus.
3) Translate the word into the students’ own language.
4) Ask the students to translate the word.
5) Draw a picture to show what the words mean.
6) Give an English example to show the word is used.
7) Ask a question by using the new word.
2. Lexical Item
a. Definition of Lexical item
A Lexical item (or lexical unit, lexical entry) is a single word or chain of words that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon (vocabulary). Examples are "cat", "traffic light", "take care of", "by-the-way", and "it's raining cats and dogs". Lexical items can be generally understood to convey a single meaning, much as a lexeme, but are not limited to single words. Lexical items are like semes in that they are "natural units" translating between languages, or in learning a new language. In this last sense, it is sometimes said that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, and not lexicalized grammar. The entire store of lexical items in a language is called its lexis.(Wikipedia).
b. Kinds of Lexical item
In his classification, for the lexical units, Lewis (1997:255-270) suggest the following units:
a. words:
Words are considered the most familiar type of lexical items. For research purposes, little information needed to be stated now, though they do pose certain methodological problems as far as the criteria of: "selection, sequence, familiarity and learnability" are concerned. Examples of this category are "book, pen, pencil, chair, car", etc.
b. Multi-word Items:
This category involves hundreds of lexical items which are multiword units; each one is recognized as having a unique value, even if they could be further analyzed into components. These multi-word units can usefully be subcategorized, but any categorization will involve marginal cases and overlapping categories of this type, the two most important groups are collocations and institutionalized expressions such as "to catch a cold" and "We'll see respectively".
c. Polywords:
Polywords, like the single word are frequently found in dictionaries. They refer to short-two or three words which may belong to any word class and the meaning of the whole group may range from immediately apparent ortotally different from the component words. Phrasal verbs are the only kind of ployword which is basically featured in language teaching. They are some examples of this kind such as: "put off, by the way, concerning with, of course, by and by, from now on, upside down", etc.
d. Collocation: (word-partnership)
Collocation refers to the tendency in which certain words occur together such as 'grill or boil meat', 'toast bread', etc.
e. Institutionalized Expressions
Institutionalized expressions are a kind of multi-word units. They allow the language user to manage aspects ofthe social interaction and, thus, they are considered as pragmatic in nature. These fixed institutionalized expressions can be classified as follows:
a. Short, scarcely grammaticalised utterances, such as: "not yet, certainly, just a moment, please," etc.
b. Sentence heads of frames represents the first words of utterances serving mainly a pragmatic intention such as: " sorry to interpret, but can I just say , that's all very well, but , I see what you mean, but I wonder if it wouldn't be better to ," etc.
c. Full sentence with readily identifiable pragmatic meaning, which are easily recognized as fully institutionalized.
f. Chunking
Chunking includes collocations, fixed and semi-fixed expressions and idioms. It plays a dominant role in the production of language. Here are: (a) examples of lexical chunks that are not collocations such as: "by the way, up to now, upside down, out of my mind", etc. (b) examples of lexical chunks that are collocations such as: "totally convinced, strange accent, terrible accident, sense of humor", etc.
c. Aspects of the Lexical Approach
There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken intonconsideration in teaching vocabulary. The following aspects, referred to them by Moras and Carlos (2001: 1-2) and these are:
1. Boundaries between conceptual meaning
It means knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g., cup, mug, bowl).
2. Polysemy
It means distinguishing between the various meanings of a single word form with several, but closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organization)
3. Homonymy
It means distinguishing between the various meanings of a single word form which has several meanings but are not closely related (e.g., a file: used to put paper in or a tool).
4. Homophony
It means the understanding of words that have the same pronunciation, but different spellings and meanings (e.g., flour, flower).
5. Synonymy
It means the distinguishing between the different shades ofmeaning that synonymous words have (e.g., extend, expand, increase).
6. Affective meaning
It means the distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speakers' attitude or the situation. Socio-cultural association of lexical items is another important factor.
7. Style, register, dialect
It means the ability to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation.
8. Translation
It means the awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g. false cognates).
9. Chunk of language
It means the multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, and lexical phrases.
10. Grammar of vocabulary
It means learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g., sleep, slept, sleeping, able, unable, disability).
11. Pronunciation
It means the ability to recognize and reproduce items in speech.
C. CONCLUSION
In the past there was a period of time when vocabulary was neglected. With the current trends vocabulary began to gain importance. So students should be aware of different vocabulary learning strategies. English teachers should keep in mind the fact that students have to be aware of what “knowing word” means. They should know that just knowing the definition or mother tongue equivalent of a word does not mean that they know the word. Students should be encourage to develop a system of vocabulary learning which will lead them to be independent learners.
The teachers should be open to innovation in the field and encourage students to develop strategies for handling new vocabulary. They should tolerate any type of prejudgements towards vocabulary learning and try to make the students like vocabulary learning and vocabulary studies.
REFERENCES
Richards & Renandya.2002. Methodology in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kruise, Anna.1987. Methodology in TESOL; A Book of Reading. New York: Newbury House Publisher.
Kridalaksana, Harimukti.1993. Kamus Linguistik Edisi Ketiga. Jakarta: Pt. Gramedia Pustaka.
Merriem.1978. Webster’s Ninth Collegiate Dictionary. New York: Merriem Webster’s Inc, 1978.
Syah, Djalinus & Enong, Azimar.1980. Tata Bahasa Inggris Modern Dalam Tanya Jawab.Jakarta: C.V Miswar.
Aeborsold, Jo & Lee, mary. 1997. From Reader to Reading Teacher. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wallace, Michael. 1982. Teaching Vocabulary. Oxford: English Language book society.
Doff, Adrian.1990. Teach English Fourth Printing. Cambridge: Teacher Training and Development.
Harley, Heidi. 2006. English Words, A linguistic Introduction. Blackwell Publishing..
Lewis, M.1997. Pedagogical Implication of the Lexical approach. In J. Coadi and T. Huckin, Second Language Acquistion; A Rationale for Pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Moras, Solange and Sao Carlos. Teaching Vocabulary to Advanced Students:A lexical Approach. In Karen’s Linguistics Issues, July 2001.
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